O Paradigma de Stroop nos estudos brasileiros: uma revisão de escopo / The Stroop Paradigm in Brazilian studies: a scope review / El Paradigma de Stroop en los estudios brasileños: una revisión del alcance

O paradigma do Stroop é amplamente utilizado na avaliação das funções executivas. Este estudo investigou o uso de tarefas baseadas no paradigma de Stroop em estudos nacionais publicados entre 2000 e 2022, por meio de uma revisão de escopo. Buscaram-se estudos empíricos nas bases de dados: Pubmed, Scielo Brazil, LILACS, Pepsic, Index Psi Periódicos, Index-Psi teses, Biblioteca Digital Brasileira de Teses e Dissertações (BDTD) e Portal CAPES de Teses e Dissertações. Do montante inicial de 1448 estudos, 147 foram selecionados (90 teses/dissertações e 57 artigos). A maioria dos artigos foi publicada em revistas de psicologia e psiquiatria, e o controle inibitório foi o constructo mais mencionado como alvo das tarefas. Quatro versões foram identificadas, sendo a mais utilizada o Stroop de cores e palavras clássico (124 estudos). Diferentes escores/índices foram relatados. Houve poucos estudos psicométricos e com normas das tarefas. Versões computadorizas ainda são pouco utilizadas. A revisão colabora para mapeamento das versões utilizadas no âmbito nacional.

The Stroop paradigm is widely used in the executive functions assessment. This study investigated the use of tasks based on the Stroop paradigm in national studies published between 2000 and 2022, by doing a scope review. Empirical studies were selected in the following databases: Pubmed, Scielo Brazil, LILACS, Pepsic, Index Psi Periódicos, Index-Psi teses, Biblioteca Digital Brasileira de Teses e Dissertações (BDTD) and Portal CAPES de Teses e Dissertações. From the initial 1448 studies found, 147 were selected (90 theses/dissertations and 57 articles). Most articles were published in psychology and psychiatry journals, and the construct most targeted by the tasks was inhibitory control. Four versions were identified, and the classic Stroop Color and Word test was the most used one (124 studies). Different scores were reported. There were few psychometric studies and few studies with task norms. Computerized versions are still little used. The review helps to outline the versions used at the national context.

El paradigma de Stroop se usa ampliamente en la evaluación de las funciones ejecutivas. Este estudio investigó el uso de tareas basadas en esto paradigma en estudios nacionales publicados entre 2000 y 2022, haciendo una revisión de alcance. Los estudios empíricos fueron seleccionados en las bases de datos: Pubmed, Scielo Brasil, LILACS, Pepsic, Index Psi Periódicos, Index-Psi teses, Biblioteca Digital Brasileira de Teses e Dissertações (BDTD) y el Portal CAPES de Teses e Dissertações. De los 1448 estudios iniciales encontrados, se seleccionaron 147 (90 tesis / disertaciones y 57 artículos). La mayoría de los artículos se publicaron en revistas de psicología y psiquiatría, y el constructo más citado de las tareas fue el control inhibitorio. Se identificaron cuatro versiones, siendo la prueba clásica Stroop Colores y Palavras la más utilizada (124 estudios). Se informaron diferentes puntuaciones. Hubo pocos estudios psicométricos y pocos estudios con normas de tareas. Las versiones computarizadas todavía se utilizan poco. La revisión ayuda a identificar las versiones utilizadas a nivel nacional.

Evidências de validade do teste informatizado para avaliação das funções executivas / Evidence of validity of the computerized test for evaluating executive functions / Evidencia de validez de la prueba computarizada para evaluación de funciones ejecutivas

Funções executivas (FE) referem-se ao conjunto de habilidades que, de forma integrada, coordenam o comportamento e a cognição. Assim, o comprometimento no desenvolvimento das FE está ligado a vários desfechos negativos ao longo da vida. Portanto, a avaliação dessas habilidades na infância é essencial para identificar e prevenir prejuízos na vida adulta. Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar evidências de validade do Teste Informatizado para Avaliação das Funções Executivas (Tafe) pelo critério de idade e pelo padrão de correlação entre medidas do TAFE e outras medidas de FE. Para isso, foi utilizada uma amostra de 51 crianças, entre 4 e 10 anos de idade, matriculadas em uma escola privada na cidade de Goiânia (GO), da pré-escola ao 4º ano do ensino fundamental. Como instrumentos, foram utilizados, além do Tafe, as tarefas de Bloco de Corsi, Teste de Trilhas A e B, Teste de Trilhas Pré-Escolares, Teste de Stroop Pré-Escolares e Subteste Dígitos da Escala Wechsler de Inteligência. Foram conduzidas análises estatísticas Kruskal Wallis para verificar a evidência de validade por relação com idade e análises de correlação não paramétrica de Spearman para avaliar as evidências de validade convergente. O instrumento investigado mostrou-se efetivo para discriminar entre as diferentes faixas etárias, assim, sensível ao desenvolvimento das FE. Os resultados obtidos no Tafe correlacionaram-se aos obtidos em outros testes que também avaliaram FE, mostrando claros padrões de convergência. Logo, as análises dos resultados fornecem evidências de validade ao Tafe, derivadas a partir de diferentes estratégias de investigação.(AU)

Executive functions (EF) refer to the set of skills that, in an integrated way, coordinate behavior and cognition. Thus, the commitment in developing EF is linked to several negative outcomes throughout life. Therefore, the assessment of these abilities in childhood is essential to identify and prevent possible harm in adult life. This study aimed to investigate evidences of validity of the Computerized Test for Evaluation of Executive Functions (TAFE) by the age criterion and by the pattern of correlation between TAFE measures and other EF measures. To this end, a sample of 51 children, between 4 and 10 years old, enrolled in a private school in the municipality of Goiânia (GO), from preschool to the 4th year of elementary school, was used. As instruments, in addition to TAFE, the tasks of Corsi Block, Trails Test A and B, Preschool Trails Test, Preschool Stroop Test and the Digits Subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale were used. Kruskal Wallis statistical analyzes were conducted to verify the evidence of validity by age criteria and Spearman's nonparametric correlation analysis to assess evidence of convergent validation. The instrument investigated was effective to discriminate between different age groups, thus being sensitive to the development of EF. The results obtained in TAFE were correlated with those obtained in other tests that also assess FE, showing patterns of convergence. Therefore, the analysis of the results provides validation evidence to TAFE, derived from different investigation methods.(AU)

Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) se refieren al conjunto de habilidades que coordinan la conducta y la cognición. Así, el deterioro en el desarrollo de FE está relacionado con varios resultados negativos durante la vida. Por tanto, la valoración de estas habilidades en la infancia es fundamental para identificar y prevenir posibles daños en la vida adulta. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar la evidencia de validez de la Prueba Computarizada para Evaluación de Funciones Ejecutivas (Tafe) por el criterio de edad y convergencia entre las medidas Tafe y otras medidas de FE. Para ello, se utilizó una muestra de 51 niños, de entre 4 y 10 años de edad, matriculados en un colegio privado de Goiânia (Goiás, Brasil) desde la preescolar hasta 4.º de primaria. Como instrumentos, además del Tafe, se utilizaron las tareas de Bloque de Corsi, el Test de los senderos A y B, el Test de los Senderos Preescolares, el Test de Stroop Preescolar y la Subprueba de Dígitos de la Escala Wechsler de Inteligencia. Se realizaron análisis estadísticos de Kruskal Wallis para verificar la validez por criterios de edad y análisis de correlación no-paramétrica de Spearman para evaluar la evidencia de validez convergente. Tafe demostró ser efectivo para discriminar entre diferentes grupos de edad, así es sensible al desarrollo de FE. Los resultados en Tafe se correlacionaron con los obtenidos en otras pruebas de FE, lo que muestra claros patrones de convergencia. Por tanto, el análisis aporta evidencias de validez para Tafe, derivadas de diferentes estrategias de investigación.(AU)

Inhibitory control after aerobic exercise with and without blood flow restriction in older adults / Controle inibitório após exercícios aeróbicos com e sem restrição do fluxo sanguíneo em idosos / Control inhibitorio después del ejercicio aeróbico con y sin restricción del flujo sanguíneo en adultos mayores

Introduction: Regular aerobic exercise (AE) can reduce the cognitive losses typically experienced with aging can be blunted by regular aerobic exercise (AE). AE also induces acute improvement of cognitive function among older adults; and AE practice with blood flow restriction (BFR) addss other benefits to elderly health, such as improvements in aerobic fitness, and increase in muscle mass and strength, however, it is not clear which EA protocol is more efficient to cognitive function. Objectives: Thus, the aimof this study was to compare AE protocols with and without BFR on the inhibitory control of the elderly. Methodology: Twenty-one elderly performed the Stroop test before and after three AE sessions in a repeated measure, cross-over design: AE with high load (70% VO2max), AE with low load (40% VO2max), and AE with blood flow restriction (AE-BFR) BFR (40% VO2max and 50% of BFR). Results and discussion: There was no significant effect from experimental sessions on cognitive function, assessed by inhibitory control in Stroop test. Perhaps, the load applied was not proper to stimulate cognitive function improvements, as seen the moderate loads have been more efficient to increase cerebral blood flow, among other physiological mechanisms encompassed. Final Considerations: Moreover, we observed very heterogeneous responses among individuals and sessions, suggesting that future research also considers biological individuality.

Introdução: As perdas cognitivas tipicamente experimentadas com o envelhecimento podem ser atenuadas por exercícios aeróbicos (EA) regulares. EA também induz melhora aguda da função cognitiva em idosos; e a prática de EA com restrição de fluxo sanguíneo (RFS) agrega outros benefícios à saúde do idoso, como melhorias na aptidão aeróbia e aumento da massa e força muscular. No entanto, não está claro qual protocolo de EA é mais eficaz para a funcao cognitiva. Objetivos: Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi comparar diferentes protocolos de EA com e sem RFS no controle inibitório de idosos. Metodologia: Vinte e um idosos realizaram o teste de Stroop antes e após três sessões de EA em medida repetida, desenho cruzado: EA com alta carga (70% VO2máx), EA com baixa carga (40% VO2máx) e EA com RFS (40% VO2máx e 50% do RFS). Resultados e discussão: Não houve efeito significativo das sessões experimentais na função cognitiva avaliada pelo controle inibitório no Stroop Test. Talvez, as cargas aplicadas não tenham sido adequadas para estimular melhorias no controle inibitório, visto que as cargas moderadas têm sido mais eficientes para aumentar o fluxo sanguíneo cerebral, entre outros mecanismos fisiológicos Considerações Finais: Além disso, observamos respostas bastante heterogêneas entre indivíduos e sessões, sugerindo que pesquisas futuras considere também a individualidade biológica.

Introducción: El ejercicio aeróbico regular (EA) puede reducir la perdida cognitiva tipicamente experimentada durante el envejecimiento. EA puede tambien inducir mejora en la funcion cognitiva entre adultos mayores, ademas, la practica de resticcion de flujo sanguíneo (RFS) agrega otros beneficios para la salud en los ancianos, así como mejoras en la aptitud aeróbica, aumento de la masa muscular y la fuerza, sin embargo, no está claro qué protocolo de EA es más eficiente para la función cognitiva. Objetivos: El objetivo de este estudio fue comparar los protocolos de EA con y sin RFS en el control inhibitorio de los ancianos. Metodología: Veintiún ancianos realizaron la prueba de Stroop antes y después de tres sesiones de EA en medida repetida, diseño cruzado: EA con carga alta (70% VO2max), EA con carga baja (40% VO2max) y EA con restricción del flujo sanguíneo (EA-RFS) RFS (40% VO2max y 50% de RFS). Resultados y discusión: No hubo efecto significativo de las sesiones experimentales sobre la función cognitiva, evaluada por el control inhibitorio en la prueba de Stroop. Quizás, la carga aplicada no fue la adecuada para estimular mejoras en la función cognitiva, ya que las cargas moderadas han sido más eficientes para aumentar el flujo sanguíneo cerebral, entre otros mecanismos fisiológicos englobados. Consideraciones finales: Además, nosotros observamos respuestas muy heterogéneas entre individuos y sesiones, lo que sugiere que para futuras investigaciones también se debe considerar la variabilidad biológica.

Associação entre funções executivas, antropometria e aptidão física de escolares / Association between executive function, anthropometry and physical fitness of school students

A aptidão física e parâmetros antropométricos têm sido associados ao aproveitamento acadêmico e melhoria da função cognitiva. Neste sentido, o objetivo do presente estudo foi de associar a função executiva, antropometria e aptidão física de escolares com idades entre 11 e 15 anos. Para tanto, 179 estudantes (85 meninas e 94 meninos) (13,18 ± 1,26 anos; 49,73 ± 12,30 kg; 159,21 ± 9,40 cm; 19,46 ± 3,79 kg/m²) foram submetidos a mensurações antropométricas (massa corporal, estatura e circunferência da cintura, com posterior cálculo de índice de massa corporal e relação cintura-estatura), realizaram dois testes cognitivos (Teste de Stroop e Teste de Trilhas) e realizaram uma bateria de testes físicos (PROESP-BR). Os dados foram analisados no SPSS versão 22.0 por meio de estatística descritiva e Correlação de Spearman. O nível de significância adotado foi de p<0,05. Os resultados indicaram que a maior parte dos escolares apresentou baixo desempenho nos testes de aptidão física. Nenhuma associação significativa foi encontrada entre as variáveis antropométricas e o tempo para completar os testes cognitivos. Por outro lado, correlações significativas negativas foram observadas na associação entre os testes de aptidão física e os testes cognitivos, indicando que participantes com melhor aptidão física necessitam de menos tempo para completar os testes cognitivos. Conclui-se que escolares com idades entre 11 e 15 anos apresentam baixa aptidão física. Ademais, foram observadas correlações negativas significativas entre a aptidão física e o tempo para completar os testes cognitivos.

Physical fitness and body composition parameters have been associated with academic performance and improved cognitive function. Thus, the aim of the present study was to associate executive function, anthropometry and physical fitness of students aged 11 to 15 years. In order to do so, 179 participants (85 girls and 94 boys) (13.18 ± 1.26 years; 49.76 ± 12.30 kg; 159.21 ± 9.40 cm; 19.46 ± 3.79 kg/m²) underwent anthropometric measurements (body mass, stature and waist circumference. Body mass index and waist-to-height ratio were also calculated), performed two cognitive tests (Stroop test and Trail making test) and performed physical fitness tests (PROESP-BR). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Spearman's Correlation. The level of significance adopted was p<0.05. Results showed that the majority of the participants presented a weak performance in the physical fitness tests. No statistically significant associations were found between anthropometric indicators and time to complete the cognitive tests. However, significantly negative correlations occurred when associating the physical tests with the cognitive tests, indicating that students with better physical fitness need less time to complete the cognitive tests. School students aged 11 to 15 years presented low physical fitness. Moreover, negatively statistically significant correlations were found between the physical fitness tests and time to complete the cognitive tests.

Correlating cognition and cortical excitability with pain in fibromyalgia: a case control study

Abstract Background: Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain disorder characterized by widespread musculoskeletal symptoms, primarily attributed to sensitization of somatosensory system carrying pain. Few reports have investigated the impact of fibromyalgia symptoms on cognition, corticomotor excitability, sleepiness, and the sleep quality — all of which can deteriorate the quality of life in fibromyalgia. However, the existing reports are underpowered and have conflicting directions of findings, limiting their generalizability. Therefore, the present study was designed to compare measures of cognition, corticomotor excitability, sleepiness, and sleep quality using standardized instruments in the recruited patients of fibromyalgia with pain-free controls. Methods: Diagnosed cases of fibromyalgia were recruited from the Rheumatology department for the cross-sectional, case-control study. Cognition (Mini-Mental State Examination, Stroop color-word task), corticomotor excitability (Resting motor threshold, Motor evoked potential amplitude), daytime sleepiness (Epworth sleepiness scale), and sleep quality (Pittsburgh sleep quality index) were studied according to the standard procedure. Results: Thirty-four patients of fibromyalgia and 30 pain-free controls were recruited for the study. Patients of fibromyalgia showed decreased cognitive scores (p = 0.05), lowered accuracy in Stroop color-word task (for color: 0.02, for word: 0.01), and prolonged reaction time (< 0.01, < 0.01). Excessive daytime sleepiness in patients were found (< 0.01) and worsened sleep quality (< 0.01) were found. Parameters of corticomotor excitability were comparable between patients of fibromyalgia and pain-free controls. Conclusions: Patients of fibromyalgia made more errors, had significantly increased reaction time for cognitive tasks, marked daytime sleepiness, and impaired quality of sleep. Future treatment strategies may include cognitive deficits and sleep disturbances as an integral part of fibromyalgia management.(AU)

Neuropsychological and educational profile of children with dyscalculia and dyslexia: a comparative study / Perfil neuropsicológico e escolar de crianças com discalculia e dislexia: estudo comparativo / Perfil neuropsicológico y educativo de los niños con discalculia y dislexia: estudio comparativo

This paper aims to compare the neuropsychological and educational profiles of Brazilian children with dyscalculia (n = 8), dyslexia (n = 13) and without learning disabilities (n = 12). The neuropsychological profile was composed of: (a) intelligence - assessed by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III); (b) attention - WISC-III Coding and Symbol Search subtests; (c) executive functions - Digit Span (backward order) and WISC-III Arithmetic subtests, Pseudoword Repetition Test for Brazilian Children, Stroop Test and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; (d) memory - WISC-III Digit Span subtest (forward order) and Rey Complex Figures. The educational profile was composed of reading, writing and mathematics, assessed by the Academic Performance Test and the Arithmetic Test. It was found that the groups with dyscalculia and dyslexia did not differentiate in any of the neuropsychological abilities, only in the reading and writing abilities. Neuropsychological variables that could explain these results were discussed. (AU)

Objetivou-se comparar os perfis neuropsicológico e escolar de crianças brasileiras com discalculia (n = 8), dislexia (n = 13) e sem dificuldades escolares (n = 12). O perfil neuropsicológico foi composto por: (a) inteligência: avaliada pela Escala de Inteligência Wechsler para Crianças (WISC-III); (b) atenção: subtestes Códigos e Procurar Símbolos da WISC-III; (c) funções executivas: subtestes Dígitos (ordem inversa) e Aritmética da WISC-III, Teste de Repetição de Pseudopalavras para Crianças Brasileiras, Teste de Stroop e Teste Wisconsin de Classificação de Cartas; (d) memória: subteste Dígitos (ordem direta) da WISC-III e Figuras Complexas de Rey. O perfil escolar foi composto por leitura, escrita e matemática, avaliado pelo Teste de Desempenho Escolar e pela Prova de Aritmética. Verificou-se que os grupos com discalculia e com dislexia não se diferenciaram em nenhuma das habilidades neuropsicológicas, somente nas habilidades escolares de leitura e escrita. Variáveis neuropsicológicas que pudessem explicar esses desempenhos intergrupos foram discutidas. (AU)

El objetivo de este trabajo fue comparar los perfiles neuropsicológicos y escolares de niños brasileños con Discalculia (n = 8), Dislexia (n = 13) y niños sin dificultades escolares (n = 12). El perfil neuropsicológico fue compuesto por: (a) inteligencia: evaluada por Escala de Inteligencia Wechsler para Niños (WISC-III); (b) atención: subtests Códigos y Búsqueda de Símbolos de la WISC-III; (c) funciones ejecutivas: subtests Dígitos (orden inverso) y Aritmética de la WISC-III, Test de Repetición de Pseudopalabras para Niños Brasileños, Test de Stroop y Test Wisconsin de Clasificación de Cartas; (d) memoria: subtest Dígitos (orden directo) de la WISC-III y Figuras Complejas de Rey. El perfil escolar fue compuesto por lectura, escritura y matemática, evaluado por el Test de Desempeño Escolar y por la Prueba de Aritmética. Se verificó que los grupos con Discalculia y con Dislexia no se diferenciaron en ninguna de las habilidades neuropsicológicas, sólo en las habilidades escolares de lectura y escritura. Fueron discutidas variables neuropsicológicas que pueden explicar esos desempeños intergrupales. (AU)

Response inhibition and emotional responding in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with comorbid disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders / 南方医科大学学报

OBJECTIVE@#To characterize the traits of neuropsychological functioning deficits in patients with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with comorbid disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders (DICCD).@*METHODS@#Twenty out-patients with ADHD, 20 with ADHD with comorbid DICCD, and 20 with DICCD, all aged 6-16 years, were enrolled in this study, with 20 healthy subjects matched for age, gender and IQ serving as the healthy controls. The patients were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Revision (DSM-5). All the subjects were assessed with Golden Stroop test and emotional Stroop test to evaluate their response inhibition and emotional responding.@*RESULTS@#In Golden Stroop test, the interference scores (IGs) of errors and reaction time both differed significantly among the groups ( < 0.05), and were the highest in patients with ADHD only. In emotional Stroop test, the mean reaction time (MRT) showed significant differences among the groups ( < 0.05); the MRT of positive- congruent trials in ADHD with comorbid DICCD group was shorter than that in ADHD group but longer than that in group DICCD; the MRT in the 3 case groups were all longer than that in the control group. The MRT of both positive-incongruent trials and negative-congruent trials in ADHD with comorbid DICCD group and DICCD group was shorter than that in ADHD group but longer than that in the control group. The MRT of negative- incongruent trials in DICCD group was shorter than that in ADHD group and ADHD with comorbid DICCD group but longer than that in the control group.@*CONCLUSIONS@#The response inhibition deficit and abnormal emotional responding are the core symptoms of ADHD. Bias emotional stimuli may render response inhibitory dysfunction in patients with DICCD with callous-unemotional traits of emotional responding disorder, especially in dealing with negative emotional trials, while the comorbidity of ADHD and DICCD tends to have the emotional response trait of DICCD.

Development of Web-Based Cognitive Training Program : Preliminary Study

Physical education class can improve acute inhibitory control in elementary school students

Abstract Aim: The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of a based-team sports physical education class on inhibitory control of elementary school children. Methods: Were selected 29 elementary school students (13 boys and 16 girls; 10.7 ± 0.7 years old; 43.2 ± 8.2 kg weight; 147 ± 5 cm height). Participants were submitted to a 50-minute sports-based physical education class performed at moderate intensity. Inhibitory control was measured before and immediately after the end of the physical education class by the Stroop Test. Results: Results indicate that the variables derived from Stroop Test performance overall reaction time were significantly reduced after the physical education class (p < 0.05). Conclusion: These results suggest that a 50-minute sports-based physical education class performed at moderate intensity elicited a significant improvement on the inhibitory control elementary school students.

Influência do nível de atividade física sobre o desempenho cognitivo no teste de Stroop / Influence of the physical activity level on cognitive performance in the Stroop test

Introdução: O teste de Stroop é comumente utilizado para avaliar a flexibilidade cognitiva e função executiva. O teste mostrou correlacionar-se com variáveis como idade, nível educacional e atividade física, porém, pouco se sabe sobre as variáveis relacionadas ao desempenho no teste em populações previamente ativas. Objetivo: Avaliar o desempenho no teste de Stroop em população fisicamente ativa. Métodos: 89 estudantes foram recrutados, os mesmos tiveram seus níveis de atividade física avaliado por questionário e composição corporal avaliada por bioimpedância. Resultado: Observamos que as variáveis relacionadas à prática de atividade física não apresentaram correlação com o teste de Stroop. Foi identificado correlação do teste com as variáveis peso corporal e índice de massa corporal (IMC), sendo que maiores valores de peso e IMC resultaram em melhor desempenho no teste. Conclusão: Para indivíduos fisicamente ativos, outros fatores parecem ser preponderantes à atividade física com relação ao desempenho no teste de Stroop.

Introduction: The Stroop test is commonly used to assess cognitive flexibility and executive function. The test was correlated with variables such as age, educational level and physical activity, but little is known about variables related to performance in this test in previously active populations. Objective: To evaluate Stroop performance in a physically active population. Methods: 89 recruited students had their physical activity levels assessed by questionnaire and body composition evaluated by bioimpedance. Result: We observed that variables related to the physical activity level did not present correlation with the Stroop test. Was identified correlation of the test with the variables body weight and body mass index (BMI), being that higher values of weight and BMI resulted in better Stroop performance. Conclusion: For physical active individuals, other factors may be preponderant to physical activity in relation to Stroop performance.

Does dual-tasking, swallow performance and attention, influence dysphagia in Parkinson disease? / A dupla tarefa, desempenho na deglutição e atenção, influencia a disfagia em pacientes com doença de Parkinson?

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of dual-tasking on swallowing performance and attention in patients with Parkinson Disease (PD). Twenty six participants were included, thirteen patients with PD and thirteen controls matched by age and education. All subjects were evaluated at single swallowing task and attentional dual-tasking. Swallowing parameters were analyzed by using Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation Swallowing Safety Study (FEESS). The attentional dual-tasking was realized using an adaptation of "Stroop color test" on video. Images about swallowing parameters in both conditions were analyzed by three experienced evaluators using literature definitions. Both groups underwent cognitive screening using MoCA. Although significant difference between swallowing parameters in both conditions were not found, in PD group there was an association between changes in parameters according to graduation and cognitive performance. The results show the dual-tasking influence worsening in PD patients with low scores on cognitive screening and low graduation. The results suggest more attention to PD patients that have worse cognitive status and / or low levels of education as the worsening of dysphagia and aspiration risk in performing dual-tasks to feed themselves.

O objetivo principal deste estudo foi investigar o efeito da dupla tarefa atencional no desempenho da deglutição em pacientes com doença de Parkinson (DP). Vinte e seis participantes foram incluídos, treze pacientes com DP e treze controles pareados por idade e escolaridade. Todos os sujeitos foram avaliados em tarefa única de deglutição e dupla tarefa atencional. Os parâmetros da deglutição foram analisados por meio do Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation Swallowing Safety Study (FEESS). O attentional dual-tasking foi realizado usando uma adaptação do "Stroop color test" em vídeo. Imagens sobre os parâmetros de deglutição em ambas as condições foram analisadas por três avaliadores experientes utilizando definições da literatura. Ambos os grupos foram submetidos a triagem cognitiva usando MoCA. Embora não tenha sido encontrada diferença significativa entre os parâmetros da deglutição nas duas condições, no grupo DP foi encontrada associação entre alterações nos parâmetros de acordo com a graduação e desempenho cognitivo. Os resultados mostram que a influência da dupla tarefa piorou nos pacientes com TP, com baixa pontuação na triagem cognitiva e baixa graduação. Os resultados sugerem maior atenção para os pacientes com DP que apresentam pior estado cognitivo e / ou baixos níveis de escolaridade como o agravamento da disfagia e risco de aspiração na realização de tarefas duplas para se alimentar.

Neuro-cognitive Ramifications of Fasting and Feeding in Obese and Non-obese Cases

Preliminary studies have claimed that short term fasting would negatively affect school performance and cognition. In contrast some other studies have reported not important decline in cognition and executive function as a result of fasting. Also limited attention was generally devoted to dietetic regimens, nutritional status and body weight. Yet neuroscience and neuro-cognitive aspects of acute hunger on the electroencephalogram and differences between obese and non-obese cases is not well understood. Hence, we decided to design and perform a case study in a more controlled situation similar to reality. Therefore, we performed several examinations including subjective tests (for eating status) and objective tests (cognitive tests such as Stroop effect and Sternberg search and electroencephalogram measures such as steady-state visual evoked potential and auditory steady-state responses) for an obese and a non-obese academic case before and after a simple breakfast. The results showed that the breakfast effects on the neuro-cognitive functions depend on either obesity status, nutritional status of the case or the type of cognitive task (visual or auditory). This paper would open a new insight to answer some important questions about the neuro-cognitive implications of fasting and feeding in obese and non-obese human cases.

Subjective Age and Cognitive Functioning in Old Age

OBJECTIVE: The present study has examined whether subjective age would be associated with cognitive functioning in older adults. METHODS: Data from the third wave of Korean Social Life, Health, and Aging Project were used. This study was conducted with 152 older adults aged 60–89 years (mean=72.26, standard deviation=6.41) who completed measures of subjective age, Mini-Mental State Examination for Dementia Screening, Elderly Verbal Learning Test, Digit Span Test, Korean-Color Word Stroop Test, Trail Making Test, Verbal Fluency Test, Korean Boston Naming Test-Short form. The association of subjective age and cognitive functioning was analyzed using hierarchical regression analysis. Sex, depression, and chronological age were included as control variables. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that a younger subjective age was associated with better processing speed, immediate memory, and executive function respectively. Even after controlling for chronological age, depression, and sex, the subjective age was associated with cognitive functioning in old age. CONCLUSION: Beyond chronological age, the subjective experience of age was associated with cognitive aging.

Comparing Attention and Cognitive Function in School Children across Noise Conditions: A Quasi-Experimental Study

OBJECTIVE: The effect of acute noise on cognitive function has long been a topic of study, yet these effects remain a serious problem for learning performance in school children. METHODS: From November 15, 2010 to December 8, 2010, we enrolled 268 students from three elementary schools (135 boys and 133 girls, 10–12 years old) in Ulsan, Korea. The study subjects were divided into two groups according to their test conditions (background versus additional noise), and tests were conducted using psychological examination tools. Chi-square tests and general linear models were used to assess the differences of impacts on cognition between the two groups. RESULTS: After adjusting for socio-demographic covariates, the noise significantly affected the results of full-scale IQ, verbal IQ, Continuous Performance Test scores, and Children’s Color Trails Test and Stroop test scores. The groups at high risk of learning difficulties were more affected by noise than low-risk groups. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that noise is hazardous to the attention and performance of elementary school students, particularly for groups at greater risk for poor academic achievement. Additional studies are needed to identify subject-specific levels of noise that can affect attention and cognitive function.

The Five Digits Test in the assessment of older adults with low formal education: construct validity and reliability in a Brazilian clinical sample / O Teste dos Cinco Dígitos na avaliação de idosos com baixa escolaridade: validade de construto e confiabilidade em uma amostra clínica do Brasil

Abstract Introduction In the assessment of older adults with very low formal education, typical tests of selective attention and inhibitory control are biased by reading abilities. In this sense, we aim to assess the psychometric characteristics of the Five Digits Test (FDT), a numerical Stroop paradigm, in older adults without cognitive disorders, with mild cognitive impairment, and with dementia. Methods We assessed 211 Brazilian older adults with low formal education using the FDT and other cognitive measures. Construct validity and reliability were assessed by correlations and internal consistency. Results The FDT test had weak correlations with crystalized intelligence tests and moderate-high correlations with fluid intelligence measures and tests of global cognitive status and executive functions. The split-half coefficient of reliability showed high internal consistency (>0.900). Conclusion Together, the results suggest that the FDT is a valid and reliable measure for the assessment of processing speed and executive functions in older adults with low formal education.

Resumo Introdução Na avaliação de idosos com educação formal muito baixa, os testes típicos de atenção seletiva e controle inibitório são enviesados devido à dependência de habilidades básicas de leitura. Nesse sentido, pretende-se avaliar as características psicométricas do Teste dos Cinco Dígitos (Five Digits Test, FDT), teste de paradigma Stroop-numérico, em idosos sem transtornos cognitivos, em pacientes com comprometimento cognitivo e em pacientes com demência. Métodos Foram avaliados 211 idosos brasileiros com baixa escolarização formal por meio do FDT e outras medidas cognitivas. Analisamos a validade de construto e a confiabilidade por correlações e consistência interna. Resultados O FDT apresentou correlações fracas com testes de inteligência cristalizada e correlações de moderadas ou fortes com medidas de inteligência fluida, medidas cognitivas globais e testes de funções executivas. O teste apresentou consistência interna elevada (>0.900). Conclusão Em conjunto, os resultados sugerem que o FDT é uma medida válida e confiável para a avaliação da velocidade de processamento e funções executivas em idosos com baixa escolaridade.

Trait vs. state anxiety in different threatening situations / Ansiedade traço versus ansiedade estado em diferentes situações de ameaça

Abstract Objective Anxiety as a uni- or multidimensional construct has been under discussion. The unidimensional approach assumes that there is a general trait anxiety, which predisposes the individuals to increases in state anxiety in various threatening situations. In this case, there should be a correlation between state and trait anxiety in any situation of threat. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between trait and state anxiety in participants exposed to two different anxiogenic situations: interpersonal threat (Video-Monitored Stroop Test - VMST) and physical threat (third molar extraction - TME). Methods Participants with various levels of trait anxiety (general trait: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - STAI, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; specific trait: Social Phobia Inventory, Dental Anxiety Scale) had their anxious state evaluated (STAI, self-evaluation of tension level, heart rate, electromyogram activity) before, during and after the VMST or the TME. Results In VMST, trait anxiety correlated to state anxiety (psychological parameters) in all test phases. However, in TME, the only trait measurement that correlated to state anxiety (psychological parameters) was the Dental Anxiety Scale. Conclusion Trait anxiety correlates positively to state anxiety in situations of interpersonal threat, but not of physical threat.

Resumo Objetivo A ansiedade como um construto uni ou multidimensional tem estado em discussão. A abordagem unidimensional presume que há uma ansiedade-traço geral, a qual predispõe o indivíduo a aumentar a ansiedade-estado em situações de ameaça. Neste caso, deveria existir uma correlação entre estado e traço ansioso em diferentes situações ameaçadoras. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a correlação entre ansiedade-traço e ansiedade-estado em participantes que foram expostos a duas situações ansiogênicas diferentes: ameaça interpessoal (Teste de Stroop Monitorado por Vídeo - TSMV) e ameaça física (exodontia do terceiro molar - ETM). Métodos Participantes com vários níveis de ansiedade-traço (traço geral: Inventário de Ansiedade Traço-Estado - IDATE; Escala Hospitalar de Ansiedade e Depressão; traço específico: Inventário de Fobia Social, Escala de Ansiedade Dental de Corah) tiveram seus estados ansiosos avaliados (IDATE, escala analógica de tensão, frequência cardíaca, eletromiografia) antes, durante e depois do TSMV ou da ETM. Resultados No TSMV, a ansiedade-traço correlacionou-se com a ansiedade-estado (parâmetros psicológicos) em todas as fases do teste. Entretanto, na ETM, a única medida de traço que se correlacionou com a ansiedade-estado (parâmetros psicológicos) foi a Escala de Ansiedade Dental de Corah. Conclusão A ansiedade-traço correlaciona-se positivamente com a ansiedade-estado em situações de ameaça interpessoal, mas não de ameaça física.

Estilos de personalidad dependiente y autocrítico: desempeño cognitivo y sintomatología depresiva / Dependent and self-critical personality styles: Cognitive performance and depressive symptomatology

Resumen El presente estudio explora la relación entre las dimensiones de personalidad dependiente y autocrítica, con los déficits emocionales, cognitivos y sociales asociados a la sintomatología depresiva. La muestra del estudio la conformaron 91 estudiantes universitarios pertenecientes a la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile y a la Universidad de Chile, con edades comprendidas entre los 18 y 24 años. Para explorar el estado emocional de los participantes se utilizaron los test Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI) y Depressive Experiences Question naire (DEQ). Con el fin de evaluar el desempeño cognitivo, se utilizaron: una tarea tipo Stroop y la prueba de Tiempo de Reacción Serial (SSRT), y para evaluar el nivel de mentalización, la tarea de reconocimiento facial Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET) de Baron-Cohen. Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre las dimensiones dependencia y autocrítica, la sintomatología depresiva y el desempeño cognitivo de los participantes.

Abstract This study examines the relationship between the dependent and self-criticism Cognitive dimensions of personality with emotional, cognitive and social deficits associated with depres-sive symptoms. The sample included 91 college students, aged 18 to 24, from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and Universidad de Chile. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) tests were used in order to explore the emotional state of the participants. A Stroop task and a Serial Reaction Time (SSRT) test were used in order to assess cognitive performance. In turn, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET) face recognition task, by Baron-Cohen, was used to assess the mentalising capacity. Sig nificant correlations were found between dependency and self-criticism dimensions, depressive symptoms and cognitive performance of the participant.

Crossmodal interference between language and flavour / Interferencia intermodal entre lenguaje y sabor

Resumen El objetivo del presente trabajo es describir la interferencia del Stroop crossmodal en representaciones del sabor, visuales y auditivas. Es un diseño mixto con dos grupos seleccionados al azar. Los estímulos fueron palabras presentadas de forma visual (grupo 1) o auditiva (grupo 2). La congruencia de estímulo (congruentes, incongruentes y control) se definió como un factor intrasujetos. Se registraron los tiempos de reacción y el número de respuestas correctas. Los resultados mostraron una interferencia Stroop crossmodal menor en condiciones de congruencia. Mientras con estímulos incongruentes y de control los tiempos de reacción se incrementaron y las tasas de precisión disminuyeron en ambos grupos experimentales. Los datos de los dos grupos se compararon y se concluyó que cuando el distractor era escrito la interferencia fue mayor que cuando era hablado. Estos resultados se discuten en términos de la dificultad de representación lingüística visual y en relación con estudios anteriores.

Abstract This work describes crossmodal Stroop interference in flavoural, visual, and auditory representations. A mixed design was used with two randomized groups. As a between-subjects factor, words were presented in visual (group 1) or auditory (group 2) forms. Stimulus congruency (congruent, incongruent, and control) was defined as a within-subjects factor. Reaction times and the number of correct answers were recorded. The results showed a minor crossmodal Stroop interference in conditions of congruency. In contrast, with incongruent and control stimuli, reaction times increased and accuracy rates diminished in both experimental groups. Data from the two groups were compared, and it was concluded that the interference was greater when the distractor was written than when it was spoken. These results are discussed in terms of the difficulty of visual linguistic representation and in relation to previous studies.

Neurocognitive Characteristics According to Depression Severity in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated associations between symptom severity and neurocognitive functions in patients with major depressive disorder using comprehensive neuropsychological tests. METHODS: Ten patients with low depression (LD) and 22 patients with high depression (HD) participated. Symptom severity was determined by both the Beck Depression Inventory and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. Additionally, anxiety was measured by the Korean version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-KYZ). Ten subtests of the Korean-Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale (K-WAIS), Stroop test, the word/design fluency tests were administered to assess cognition. RESULTS: The LD and HD groups did not differ in any of cognitive measures but anxiety level. Namely, the HD group obtained significantly higher scores on the state (U = 29.50, p < 0.01) and trait (U = 28.50, p < 0.001) anxiety scales than the LD group. A significant interaction effect between trait anxiety and depression severity was observed on the picture arrangement subtest of the K-WAIS [F (1, 27) = 5.09, p < 0.05]. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive deficits observed in patients with major depressive disorder may be related to other factors rather than current symptom severity. Trait anxiety possibly moderates the effect of current symptom severity on social judgment in these patients.

Altered Cortical Thicknesses of Left Pars Opercularis and Left Lateral Occipital Gyrus Can Be Associated with Psychotic Symptoms in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study was to present an association between the presence of psychotic symptoms and cortical thicknesses/subcortical volumes in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: Fourteen AD patients with psychotic symptoms and 41 without psychotic symptoms underwent 3T MRI scanning. After adjusting the effects of confounding variables, the cortical thicknesses were compared between the AD patients with and without psychotic symptoms in multiple regions, across the continuous cortical surface. In addition, the subcortical volumes were compared with a structure-by-structure manner. RESULTS: AD patients with psychotic symptoms were characterized by significant smaller cortical thickness of left pars opercularis (F=4.67, p=0.02) and left lateral occipital gyrus (F=6.05, p=0.04) rather than those without psychotic symptoms, after adjusting the effects of age and scores on the Stroop test, non-psychotic items of Neuropsychiatry Inventory and Clinical Dementia Rating, triglyceride level and total intracranial volume. However, there were no significant differences in the subcortical volume between the two groups. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that AD psychosis may reflect more severe deterioration of neuropathologic change in specific brain region.